Misconceptions Concerning Hypnosis

Misconception 1: Hypnosis is a condition induced in the subject by the hypnotist.

This erroneous idea is the natural result of our use of English. We collo quially refer to hypnotizing subjects, and books are written and courses are given to train therapists and others "to hypnotize" subjects. Actually all hyp nosis is self-hypnosis in the sense that any effect produced, including the trance state itself, is produced by the concentration and imagination of the subject, not the operator. The real role of the hypnotist is to guide and teach the subject how to think and what to do to produce the desired result. The operator no more imposes this state on a subject than a teacher learns the content of a course for a student. Both teacher and hypnotist can only fa cilitate the efforts of the student or subject.

Once a trance state is induced, the hypnotist may seem to utilize it for whatever result is sought, but even in the area of trance utilization, whatever phenomena occur do so because of the imagination of the subject, not the operator. For this reason the term trance capacity is preferable to the more common term hypnotic susceptibility to refer to the likelihood of a given sub ject's achieving a given trance depth. The latter term implies that the subject is having the state imposed on him, while the former recognizes that the capacity to achieve a given trance level is an ability of the subject, not the operator.

This is not to imply that the hypnotist is not important or does not have to be highly skilled. Self-hypnosis is extremely difficult to achieve without help and training from an external hypnotist in the beginning. Even with experi ence in self-hypnosis, it is always easier to achieve and utilize the trance state with the help of an external operator.

Inexperienced subjects should always be advised that they, not the hyp notist, are responsible for producing whatever results are obtained. This will have the effect of taking the onus of any difficulty in induction away from the operator and preventing the subject from losing the confidence in the hypnotist's ability that is so essential to a successful induction. Also, it is the truth. Some feel it undermines the probability of success in the induction if the hypnotist uses such equivocal language as "We will try to hypnotize I you," or "We will see how deep a state you can attain." They believe that the hypnotist should always speak as though the induction is certain to be successful. If the responsibility for the success of the induction is placed fully on the subject, such unprofessional assurances of success are unnecessary. It is possible to reflect confidence in the subject's success by both word and manner without adopting the unwarranted behavior of a charlatan.

Misconception 2: A hypnotist must be a dynamic, forceful, or charismatic person.

Since the subject and not the hypnotist is ultimately responsible for the induction of the trance state, it follows that the abilities of the subject and his motivation for hypnosis are more important than the personality of the hyp notist—unless this personality is such that it is incompatible with the needs or expectations of the subject. Different subjects require different types of hypnotists or different techniques. Some subjects can respond successfully to a wide range of hypnotists; others may require a specific type of approach to be successful. Certainly if the hypnotist is personable and has a good rap-port with the subject, it is a positive factor. On the other hand, some out standing hypnotists are not very good speakers and often have poor diction or marked accents. These characteristics evidently do not interfere with their success.

Kroger (1977b) makes the point that hypnosis is a "prestige" type of phe nomenon and that it is the belief in the imminence of hypnosis that produces it. Hence, it is an advantage to a hypnotist to be known to the subject as an authority in the field or to have a title like "Doctor," for this will enhance the subject's expectations of success. For this reason, psychotherapists who use hypnosis frequently in their practice would do well to have their diplomas and degrees on exhibition in their office or waiting room.

Misconception 3: Hypnosis involves a battle of wills with the hypnotist, who needs a stronger will than the subject.

This is a common misconception of many subjects that probably came from watching old Bela Lugosi movies. Unless it is dispelled, it can make the induction of hypnosis difficult or impossible since the subject will see it is an admission of inferiority. If a subject comes to the therapist's office with the attitude that he is chal lenging the latter to be able to hypnotize him, he must be informed that there is no contest and if he chooses to resist hypnosis he will, of course, be suc cessful. He must be made to understand that the hypnotic state can be pro duced only with his active cooperation and help. Incidentally, it is possible to achieve a hypnotic state without the subject's being aware that he is being hypnotized. This can be done simply by avoiding the use of the words hypnosis or sleep in the induction procedure, or by saying that what the hypnotist is trying to do is get him to relax deeply. On the surface, this may seem as if the operator is unethically hypnotizing a sub ject without his consent, but bear in mind that no effect will occur unless the subject is willing to produce it. Such a procedure may be justified in the case of a patient who could profit from hypnosis but who cannot get over his fear of being hypnotized because of some unfounded ideas he has about it. A good question to ask at this point is whether there is any real difference be tween a deep state of relaxation as produced by the Jacobson method (see p. 66) and hypnosis? In other words, what is being suggested is that hypnosis often occurs in therapy when even the therapist does not consciously intend to produce it. In any event, this issue deals more with names than with reality. Not only is the ability to be hypnotized not a sign of a weak will, gullibility, or stupidity, but it in fact requires a good degree of intelligence in order to be able to concentrate and to think in the unfamiliar manner that the operator requests. Generally the author has found that bright people make good sub jects, and it is a good idea to so inform subjects prior to induction attempts.

Miscellaneous Applications of Hypnosis

Hypnosis has been used in education as a learning aid, and as a methodof dealing with examination anxiety, and for self-improvement suggestions (e.g., of greater self-confidence) in social and business situations (Boutin, 1978; Cohen, 1979; Hebert, 1984; Porter, 1978; Spies, 1979; Wollman, 1978). Cole (1979) found that hypnosis was no more effective in improving the academic performance of 31 students in a college preparation course (who were exposed to a 40-minute induction and deepening tape plus four sub- sequent 15-minute hypnotic tapes making suggestions of enhanced academic performance) than exposing students to control tapes making the same sug- gestions without hypnosis or lectures. These results are not particularly sur- prising. Hypnosis would not be expected to improve academic performance unless poor performance was caused by psychological factors (other than a low level of ability) and these factors were identified and addressed by the hypnotic technique used. Van Pelt (1975a, 1975b) suggested the use of hyp- nosis in business as a method of coping with interpersonal problems and in space travel to deal with boredom, nervous strain, and problems produced by weightlessness, interruption of sleep cycles, and space sickness. Christie (1982) discusses a variety of industrial uses of hypnosis, such as attitude change, performance facilitation, vocational counseling, advertising, and consumer research, both with and without formal trance induction.

Hypnotic phenomena play an indirect role in entertainment. Most mem- bers of a movie audience resemble people in a hypnotic trance. The movie itself probably functions similarly to the word picture painted by a hypnotist in a cognitive induction and detaches the audience members from their im- mediate surroundings. Good subjects trained in self-hypnosis can probably use this skill to enhance the vividness of the private fantasies in which all people engage. It is likely that creative people like authors or playwrights can use hypnotic fantasy productively to generate new ideas for their work. Rob- ert Louis Stevenson got the idea for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde from a nocturnal dream (Dement, 1974). Hypnotic suggestions have not only been used to help actors assume a character but also to generate appropriate facial expres- sions in photographers' models (Kondreck, 1963).

Hypnosis even comes into play in modern religious life. Many people have had the experience of being so entranced by the charismatic style of a tele- vision evangelist that they listened captivated for an entire sermon without having had prior interest in the message being conveyed. Indeed, the ability to attract and hold the attention of an audience is much like a hypnotist's getting a subject to concentrate on a fixation object or instructing him to "at- tend only to the sound of my voice."

Matheson (1979b) points out the similarities between religious experiences and healing and hypnotic phenomena. Tappeiner (1977), a theologian who notes the operation of hypnotic factors in several varieties of religious ex- perience, argues that the fact that religious phenomena can be explained in terms of hypnotic principles does not negate their spiritual validity, that is, God works through natural mechanisms.

The present author would agree that noticing the hypnotic qualities and techniques of an evangelist commits the observer to nothing regarding the spiritual validity of his message.

Walker (1984) notes the common factor of what he calls "inadequate re- ligious attitudes," which can complicate psychotherapy, and suggests a role both for hypnosis and ministers of religion in an effort to correct these and facilitate therapy. This thought-provoking article suggests that perhaps psy- chotherapists, as part of their training, should be exposed to the major tenets of the various religious denominations, for guilt is commonly seen in patients with overly strict religious beliefs, and psychotherapists are often reluctant to address such issues. Perhaps if they were more knowledgeable concerning the beliefs of the major religious denominations, they might recognize when their patient's beliefs were idiosyncratic or "inappropriate" and when a con- sultation with a clergyman might prove helpful in correcting them (just as therapists are trained to recognize when a medical consultation is necessary).

The diverse applications of hypnosis discussed tend to ob- scure the fact that hypnosis is basically a phenomenon rather than a tech- nique. It would be strange indeed if a natural phenomenon like hypnosis did not occur often in daily life, but when it does occur naturally in such prosaic settings as the movies or while watching television, we usually fail to recognize a spontaneous trance for what it is. Sometimes naturally occurring trances can have unfortunate consequences, as in the case of highway hypnosis. Recognizing that effects of this nature can occur makes it possible for engi- neers to design cars and highways to minimize or eliminate such risks.

Training in self-hypnosis opens the door for the employment of hypnosis in many minor applications, such as the control of normal levels of anxiety before giving a speech or prior to an important business interview, where it would normally not be practical to incur the expense of a professional con- sultation.

While this chapter has considered some of the major applications of hyp- nosis, it is not possible to consider all of its potential uses, for these extend to any situation that requires relaxation; the stimulation of imagery, emotion or motivation; or the enhancement of the ability to concentrate on something and become detached from the environment.

Hypnotic Induction Profile (HIP)

The Hypnotic Induction Profile (HIP) was developed by Herbert Spiegal for clinical use. Like any clinical instrument, it is designed to be individually administered. The main advantage claimed for it is its speed of administration. It expresses Hypnotic susceptibility on a 5-point scale and requires only about 5 minutes to administer. Like all of the foregoing instruments, this one is based on the induction of a Hypnotic state, but the induction procedure never uses the word hypnosis, trance or sleep, and in this sense it is an indirect procedure that might be useful with a patient fearful of being hypnotized

Scoring criteria are based on the amount of roll produced in a subject requested to roll his eyes upward and then slowly close his lids, arm levitation, posthypnotic response, amnesia, and subjective reports. Although the test manual does not give either reliability or validity data, or clear scoring instructions, this information is published elsewhere by Spiegal (1977)

While the reliability coefficient reported by Spiegel seems too low to make this instrument a measure of choice in experimental work, it may be adequate of susceptibility is more important than obtaining an accurate or the most sensitive measure possible

Standard hypnotic Arm Levitation Induction and Test  (SHALIT)

Like the HIP, the SHALIT is a brief test designed for clinical usage. It scores the amount coefficient of 0.88, and it correlates 0.63 with a 10-item abbreviation of the SHSS form A. Thus, it is probably a useful scale for clinical work although not sensitive enough for experimental usage because it is limited to a single factor measurement (an ideomotor task)

Barber Suggestibility Scale (BSS)

Unlike any of the foregoing instruments, the Barber Suggestibility Scale does not depend on the induction of a hypnotic state under standardized conditions. It does not purport to be a test of hypnotic susceptibility but of suggestibility, the ability of a subject to produce hypnotic-like behavior whether or not previously subjected to a hypnotic induction procedure. In order to understand the need for this scale and why it was developed, it is necessary to describe BarberÕs theoretical orientation toward hypnosis.

Barber believes that the concept of a hypnotic state is not useful in the study of hypnotic phenomena. He advocates (as did Hull before him) that psychologists should study what precedent conditions (independent variables) are necessary and sufficient to produce responses ( dependent variables), such as catalepsy, analgesia, hallucinations, and so on, that are normally labeled hypnotic behavior. For example, he notes that in most hypnotic induction procedures, at least four specific kinds of independent variables are confounded under the label hypnotic induction:

1. The situation is defined to the subject as hypnosis
2. Suggestions of drowsiness, eye closure, and sleep are made
3. The subject is told that it will be easy to respond to suggestions
4. The subject is motivated to make the suggested responses

Barber has investigated the effect of each of these factors individually in producing the kinds of behavior commonly labeled as hypnotic. Barber calls instructions including items 3 and 4 only task motivational; he finds that by themselves they are just as effective as hypnotic induction in eliciting hypnotic like behavior on the BSS. Because of his theoretical and methodological orientation, Barber and his students like to put quotes around the terms hypnosis and hypnotic, leading some of his critics to conclude, unjustifiably, that his position denies the existence of hypnotic phenomena. This criticism is inaccurate; his position is not that the phenomena are not real but that the hypnotic state is not a useful explanatory concept to account for them.

Since Barbers theory holds that hypnotic phenomena are produced by some antecedent events that should be isolated, it follows that a test of hypnotic-like behavior-one that does not depend on the prior induction of a hypnotic state-is needed to test these factors. Hence, the BSS can be used to elicit hypnotic-like responses either with or without a prior induction procedure.

As a result of his research, Barber reports that in addition to task-motivational instructions, the tone of the operator’s voice and the subjects attitudes and motives (due to pretest instructions and what the subject is told regarding the purpose of the study) affect results on the test. Variables that do not seem to affect suggestibility measures are whether the subject’s eyes are open or closed, whether instructions are given personally or by tape recording, and the personality of the subject as measured by most standardized test instruments.

The types of items on the BSS are similar to those given on standardized tests of susceptibility; the main difference is that the instructions make no mention of hypnosis. Items tested include the following:

1. Arm Lowering
2. Arm Levitation
3. Hand Lock
4. Hallucination of thirst
5. Verbal inhibition
6. Body immobility
7. Posthypnotic-like response
8. Selective amnesia

Following the test and the objective scoring, the subject is asked if he really felt the effect suggested or just went along to please the examiner. The subject is given a subjective score of 1 for each item that he says he really experienced. Thus, subjects get both objectives and subjective scores on this scale, each having a maximum value of 8 (Barber and Wilson, 1978-1979).

Hypnosis in Sports

A major part of an athleteÕs performance is a function of his mental state, which can be profoundly influenced by suggestions, both hypnotic and waking. One of the major functions of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the mobilization of bodily resources for emergency situations for emergency situations, enabling the organism to fight or flee more efficiently when angry or frightened. Increases of up to 33% in strength or endurance can be produced by the emotions of anger or fear. Hence, hypnotic or self-hypnotic suggestions are often used to psych up athletes prior to a performance. In addition to its use in mobilizing appropriate emotional responses, hypnosis is valuable in providing relaxation and increased self-confidence. This is particularly important in athletic activation that requires highly developed skills and concentration such as golf or archery. Kroger (1977b) improves the confidence of golfers in their putting ability by suggesting to them that the hole is the size of a sewer. Training in self-hypnosis is a valuable adjunct to the use of hypnosis in sports, and it renders hypnotic aid available to the athlete whenever needed. Heavyweight boxer Ken Norton habitually used self-hypnosis to prepare himself psychologically for a fight.

Callen ( 1983 ) had 423 long-distance runners complete a questionnaire concerning their thoughts and events commonly occurring during hypnosis

Fifty-four percent of respondents reported subjective feelings of being in an altered state of consciousness, which they produced by such methods as rhythmical breathing, repeating a phrase, counting, imagining music, or imagery. Fifty-nine percent claimed to be more creative while running, and 58% engaged in imagery, often to improve their time or distance. Callen suggests the large population of runners is a valuable resource for the study of spontaneous self-hypnotic phenomena.

Simek and Brien (1981) used hypnosis to develop the mental state required for optimal performance in members of a collegiate fencing team and in a professional boxer. One fencer was given the effective suggestion that every opponent with whom she fenced would remind her of a rival for her boyfriend. Relaxation instructions were given to the boxer to deal with his anxiety, which was causing him to freeze up in the first round. These instructions were followed with suggestions that his opponent was responsible for all of his problems, to marshal anger.

Professional sports are major industries with large amounts of money dependent on successful team performances. Hence, organizations like major league baseball teams have not been hesitant to employ staff psychologists to deal with players personal problems that may interfere with their job performance or to use hypnosis in the securing of peak performance from players.

Although hypnosis may be an aid in optimizing an athletes performance, it cannot create an ability that he does not have. A fighter may be made more aggressive by hypnosis suggestion but, if he cannot box well, hypnosis may result in his being hurt more than if he retained his more cautious boxing style. One major league pitcher who had problems with wild pitches and loss of control was aided by hypnosis in getting the ball over the plate more regularly, only to have the number of hits against him dramatically increase.

The use of hypnosis in sports, both professional and amateur, gives rise to ethical questions as to whether the practice should be prohibited. It is theoretically possible to use pain-reducing suggestions to improve the performance of a runner or even to permit an athlete with an unhealed injury to play, in a manner analogous to drugging a racehorse that has an injured leg. There is a distinction of course, between a racehorse and a human professional athlete who is able to understand the risks involved and provide an informed consent to the procedure. On the other hand, a high school or even a college athlete is often not mature enough to resist the pressure produced by feelings of duty to his teammates or school. He may thus be subjected to undue influence to consent to such an ill-advised procedure. The author regards the employment of hypnosis by psychologist in such a case as both a violation of professional ethics and malpractice.

Hypnosis Defined

Hypnosis is popularly understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behavior or thought patterns-in particular an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of relaxation. The procedure by which this is achieved is called hypnotism

Intense debates surround the topic of hypnosis Many scientists dispute its very existence, while many therapists insist upon its value. One of the problems that creates controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr William S. Kroger states:

Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior (1977)

The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in entertainment and in health applications and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subject eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is asleep or, popularly termed, in trance. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.

On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical ion, and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Clinical hypnosis is used in attempts to increase the ability to recall memories, assist with dieting, smoking cessation, pain reduction or elimination, eliminating irritable bowl syndrome (IBS) as well as resolving mental disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder( PTSD), anxiety and depression ion

Hypnosis Defined By The American Psychological Association

In 1933, the American Psychological Association defined hypnosis as “a procedure which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant experiences changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior”

This definition was revised and expanded March 2005. It begins, ÒHypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will experience will be presented”

Hypnosis Defined In Physiological Terms: Alpha and Theta State-based Definitions

Through data collected via electroencephalography (EEGs), four major brain wave –patterns-frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain-have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14-32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) falls in the 7-14 CPS range, the Theta state (drowsy) from 4-7 CPS,

And Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) is defined as approximately 3-5 CPS.

One physiological definition of hypnosis states that the brainwave level necessary to work on issues such as stopping smoking, weight management, reduction of phobias, sports improvement, etc, is the alpha state. The alpha state is commonly associated with closing oneÕs eyes, relaxation, and daydreaming.

Another physiological definition states that the theta state is required for therapeutic change. The theta state is associated with hypnosis for surgery, hynoanesthesia andhypnoanalgesia, which occur more readily in the theta and delta states. It should be noted that hypnoanalesia of the skin is a common test for somnambulism. Arm and body catalepsy are one of a few tests done to determine readiness for these surgical applications.

However, it is important to reflect upon the fact that both arm and body catalepsy can be induced in non-hypnotized subjects. Indeed, arm catalepsy is a standard stage-hypnotist test of susceptibility. Moreover, normal, non-hypnotized subjects can be found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also displaying any of the behavior, traits or the enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotized

Dave Elman Definition Of Hypnosis

He defines hypnosis as “a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human mind is bypassed, and selective thinking established.” The critical faculty of your mind is that part which passes judgment. It distinguishes between concepts of hot and cold, sweet and sour, large and small, dark and light. If we can bypass this critical faculty in such a way that you no longer distinguish between hot and cold, sweet and sour, we can substitute selective thinking for conventional judgment making

Michael Yapko defines hypnosis: hypnosis is a process of influential communication in which the clinician elicits and guides the inner associations of the client in order to establish or strengthen therapeutic associations in the context of a collaborative and mutually responsive goal-oriented relationship”

Stage Application Of Hypnosis

Stage hypnosis is where a hypnotist chooses volunteers from the audience, puts the volunteers into a trance using hypnosis, and then has them perform certain silly, funny, or supposedly “amazing” suggestions. This could be like having the volunteers believe they are: drunk: aliens speaking a strange alien language and having another volunteer translate the language; naked or seeing others naked; 6-year-old children; ballet dancers-and the list goes on. All suggestions are temporary and usually only last during the show. When performed correctly, stage hypnosis is basically having fun with the subconscious is basically having fun with the subconscious mind without any serious detrimental side effects. It’s all performed for entertainment and with the welfare of the volunteers in mind. Stage hypnosis can be the most entertaining field because it involves “ real” people from the audience responding in a variety of ways which usually makes no two shows the same.

Hypnosis and Creativity

Creativity, like intelligence, is regarded positively on our culture but probably is much rarer. Whether the comparative rarity of creativity is due to the fact that it is not reinforced in our mass-production educational system, where it can be a source of problems for teachers, is a question that remains to be answered.

There is little, if any, well-controlled research concerning the effects of hypnosis on creativity because of the immature state of the art with respect to studies on creative behavior.

In theory, hypnosis would not be expected to improve creative behavior unless there were some psychological factors at work that prevented the full expression of a subject's creative abilities that could be removed by hypnotic suggestion.

An example of this type of factor can be seen in the theoretical foundation for a method of group problem solving called brainstorming. A common difficulty in problem solving is that many problems require the skills and knowledge of more than one person for solution.

To extrapolate from brainstorming, if creative ability is being inhibited by fear of ridicule or criticism, then hypnosis may be able to increase creativity under these circumstances. Sanders (1976) discusses factors believed to facilitate or inhibit creative behavior and reports results that suggest group hypnosis may be effective in improving the ability of subjects to solve real-life problems more creatively.

Gur and Reyher (1976) report that hypnotized subjects performed significantly better than simulators and waking controls on figural and overall creativity scores of the Torrance Test of Creativity and McDonald (1985) found hypnosis did not generally improve creative performance as measured by the T.T.o.C. but not on verbal creativity. Although these results can hardly be taken as an indication that hypnosis is incapable of modifying scores on that instrument since no specific suggestions of better performance seem to have been made.

In addition to removing factors that inhibit creative expression, hypnosis may be useful in encouraging the imagery and imagination that are often involved in creative thinking. Gur and Reyher (1976) suggest that the psychoanalytic concept of "regression in the service of the ego" may be an appropriate description of how hypnosis may aid creativity. In other words, a per is regressed to permit a more promitive type of pictoral imagery in thinking, which my be better for solving some problems creatively than the usual adult patter of verbal thought.

Simon (1977) and Khatami (1978) speculate on the role of altered states of consciousness in the genesis of creative thinking and compare this type of thought process with conventional logical thinking.

Since persons with a good imagination and the ability to generate imagery are typically good hypnotic subjects, it would appear likely that future research may disclose a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and creativity. This is also suggested by Patricia Bower's (1978) work, in which she found that highly creative people and good hypnotic subjects report their creative behavior or hypnotic responses as occurring effortlessly.

She thus investigated the possibility that the capacity for "effortless experiencing" might be a common denominator between creativity and hypnosis. She found a high degree of correlation between susceptibility and both effortless experiencing and creative abilities.

Hypnosis

What is hypnosis? ---It is movement of brain wave states; I say movement because at any point in time an individual can be drifting through multiple brain wave patterns.

These patterns can be measured as a frequency response and can be measure by an EEG machine.

These frequency responses are described as Beta, Alpha, Theta and Delta. The state of hypnosis is typically related to the Theta brain wave response. However in my opinion theta shows constant vacillation with other brain wave states.

In simplified terms these brain wave states can be measured on a graph. The amplitude or height of the response is indicative of how are mind is functiong. Beta brain waves show a very active mind and therefore they spike the highest on a graph. This the brain wave state that would describe daily activity

Alpha state is slightly meditative; almost a feeling of melancholy if anybody is in to yoga it is the feeling you get right at the end of the class when you take shabasa. You’re not asleep but just floating on that cusp.

We then come to Theta, which is the highly responsive part of the brain that is associated with hypnosis

This state of hypnosis shows less amplitude on our graph due to the fact that the conscious mind is in a state of hibernation. The sub conscious is still hyperactive and very open to suggestion. The conscious mind although in hibernation still knows what is going on but is quite happy to kick back and observe ---If conflict occurs with its personal values it will quickly revert to an active conscious state.

Do not

Although as simple as these sounds this is the best way to think about hypnosis. Far to many people intellectualize the state of hypnosis and subsequently prevent them from experiencing it.

Delta describes a deep deep state of relaxation—This is the brain wave state where we heal and recuperate, where we charge our engines for the following day. It is often difficult to get an individual to awaken from this state. The conscious mind will step in, but it does not like to----It is self-preservation, it knows that it needs deep rest. Do not ignore this restorative state or you will end up physically and emotionally exhausted

As a hypnotist I remove the way of communicating between Beta and Theta. The way we access hypnosis is to travel through alpha- It is the bridge to the hypnotic state. With your permission you allow me to guide you across this bridge –In essence my voice becomes the bridge that carries you to the highly receptive hypnotic state

Although all hypnosis is self-hypnosis autohypnosis for most is still difficult. The need to have a therapist or facilitator takes away the thought process allows for a more successful experience.

Understanding basic brain wave patterns gives a better handle of what hypnosis is. An incredible self-development tool that can have a profound effect on every aspect of our life. Keep hypnosis simple stupid and sit back and reap the rewards.

If you need further information on the subject do not hesitate to call me at 1(760)635-7785 or go to my web page at www.barryjones.com

Hypnoanesthesia

Hypnosis is not used as often as an anesthetic agent as it is to control nonsurgical pain. On at least two occasions, the author was unable to find a local obstetrician who employed hypnosis in deliveries for pregnant women desiring such a referral (both of whom were excellent hypnotic subjects).

Probably the principal reason for this state of affairs has been the development of reasonably safe, rapidly effective chemical changes. It has been estimated that only 25% of the population are capable of developing a sufficient degree of hypnoanesthesia for its use as the sole anesthetic in relatively minor procedures, such as fracture settings, tooth extractions, the changing of burn dressings, or the removal of sutures in frightened children.

Other reasons advanced for reluctance to use hypnoanesthesia include: the amount of time, training, and skill required for a hypnotic induction; the fact that hypnosis may be contraindicted in patients with psychological problems such as psychotics, borderlines, or depressives; and the fact that hypnosis is regarded as Òquasi-scientificÓ in some professional circles

With respect to the contraindication of hypnosis and hypnoanesthia in patients with certain psychological disorders, some clarification is required. There is no absolute contraindication for hypnosis in any patient. Some patients may present a higher risk of developing adverse reactions such as spontaneous regression and aberrations, that are undesirable in a nonpsychotherapy context, and control of these require some skill on the part of the hypnotist. Hence, with these patients, hypnoanesthesia requires a hypnotist who is well trained in psychotherapy. It should not be attempted by a physician who lacks such training. It is unfortunate that physicians in general and anesthesiologists in particular, do not receive more training in psychodynamic concepts and hypnosis, for it is usually convenient to have a psychologist induce hypnoanesthia except in an emergency situation.

If initial hypnotic inductions are performed are performed in a leisurely, unhurried atmosphere and the patient is given the opportunity to develop an anesthesia and experience it tested successfully, his confidence in the adequacy of the procedure will be greater. Patients should be trained to enter a trance state either on a posthypnotic signal or by self-induction to save time in the operating room and render them independent of the presence of the particular hypnotist who trained them.

A patient so trained may be able to have a successful hypnotic delivery under the care of another obstetrician should the one who trained her in hypnosis be available at her delivery. Also, the ability to reenter hypnosis rapidly on a signal is a valuable safeguard should a patient inadvertently awaken during surgery. This contingency is quite unlikely, particularly if the hypnotist instructs the patient not to awaken until directed to and if he or she continues a steady flow of trance maintaining chatter throughout the operation. Preliminary trials of hypnosis may be presented to patients with reservations about the procedure as exercises in relaxation to prevent their fears from producing reactions that may lead to false impressions of their abilities as subjects.

The value of hypnosis may also extend to the prenatal period------It not possible to do successful hypnoanesthia, or for that matter any other hypnotic procedure, unless the therapist takes the time necessary to establish a proper rapport with the patient and the latter develops confidence in the hypnotists ability and concern for his welfare In addition to its use as an anesthetic, hypnosis can be a valuable pre-operative and postoperative adjunct to the care of surgical patients.

J. Barber and Mallin (1977) advocate the use of hypnosis during the fitting of contact lenses and emphasize the careful choice of words in the framing of suggestions. Words that denote the same thing may vary widely in their connotations and implications and thus may not be equally effective in framing suggestions.

Hypnosis - Hallucinations Continued

Barber (1964e) concluded that the research failed to demonstrate that hypnosis produces auditory or visual hallucinations that are the same as per ceptions or different from imagination. Erickson (1938a; 1938b), on the other hand, took the position that often hallucinations are quite real and reported that suggestions of negative auditory hallucinations, or deafness, could not be distinguished from organic deafness by ordinary means. His subjects dis played no startle response to an unexpected loud sound, failed to raise their voices in speaking when background noise was increased, or failed to blush to auditory stimuli that would normally produce such a response in a particular subject. He also found that a conditioned finger withdrawal response to an auditory-conditioned stimulus disappeared during hypnotically suggested deafness and reappeared after the hypnosis. Black and Wigan (Barber, 1964c) found a similar result with an autonomic nervous system response not under conscious control as a finger flexion is. Pattie (1935) reported the failure to produce uniocular blindness in a small group of subjects as disclosed by ster eoscopes, filter, and Flees box tests. To reconcile these conflicting views, it will be necessary to sample a number of lines of research.

Barber and Calverley (1964;) report that suggestions of deafness were ef fective in 15 hypnotized and 15 nonhypnotized subjects. However, if these subjects were subjected to delayed auditory feedback where the sound of their own voices was delayed slightly, they reacted as do typical subjects with normal hearing by stuttering, mispronouncing words, increasing vocal inten sity, and talking more slowly.

Barber (1964c) reports that in hypnotically suggested deafness in one ear, subjects who display positive results still report hearing a beat note if stimu lated with slightly different frequencies in each ear. Weitzenhoffer criticized this study on the grounds that the frequency applied to the "deaf" ear could have reached the other by bone conduction, but it is interesting to note that the one subject who did not experience the beat note was a physics major presumably familiar with the phenomenon of beat notes. In a study providing results analogous to the common finding that hypnotic pain control has little effect on physiological measures correlated with pain, Sabourin, Brisson, and Deschambault (1980) found that hypnotically in duced deafness did not influence a conditioned heart rate response or the response time in a key-pressing task to an auditory stimulus in subjects re porting a positive subjective effect.

Spanos, Jones, and Malfara (1982) found that high-susceptibility subjects reported greater deafness than low-susceptibility subjects in response to suggestions of unilateral deafness but did not differ objectively in impairment from the latter as measured by responses to words presented in dichotic pairs. Crawford, MacDonald, and Hilgard (1979) found that reduction in hearing in response to hypnotic suggestion correlated 0.59 with hypnotic suscepti bility but the "hidden observer" technique (see p. 116) disclosed that covert hearing was at least 20% greater than reported overtly by the subjects. Subjects who are instructed to hallucinate a background (which normally produces an optical illusion effect) over a figure do experience such an illusion but not as strongly as they would with a real picture of the background added and no more than nonhypnotized subjects instructed to imagine the back ground (Barber, 1964e). Miller, Hennessy, and Leibowitz (1973) found that if such an illusion-producing background was negatively hallucinated away, the Ponzo illusion did not disappear. Hypnotic subjects capable of negatively hallucinating portions of visual stimuli showed varying degrees of ability to attenuate the Tatchner-Ebbin-ghaus circles illusion posthypnotically (Blum, Nash, Jansen, and Barbour, 1981). Miller and Leibowitz (1976) found that a hypnotically produced re-striction of the visual field produced behavior no different from that obtained from a group of simulators. Similar results were reported by Leibowitz, Lundy, and Guez (1980). Leibowitz, Post, Rodemer, Wadlington, and Lundy (1980) found that the amount of visual field narrowing occurring in response to in-structions to simulate such narrowing was a function of the method of mea surement, with direct measurement by perimetry yielding the most effect. Dorcus (1937) found no pupillary reflex in response to suggestions of light intensity change. He also found that the postrotational eye movement (nystagmus) produced in four subjects after hypnotic suggestions that the subject was rotating in a chair were voluntary and not the same as the eye movement produced by the same subjects when actually rotated. Also, falling responses following rotation suggestions did not appear unless the subjects had prior experience actually being rotated, and when produced under these circum stances, they were in the wrong direction for the rotation direction suggested.

Wallace (1980) reports that perceived autokinetic movement of a hyp notically hallucinated light was a function of hypnotic susceptibility as mea sured by the HGSHS. Since the subjects were all psychology students, it is not possible to confirm the present author's opinion that performance was also a function of the subject's knowledge of psychology. The suggestion of a hallucinated light in a dark room is an indirect suggestion to produce au- J tokinetic motion to a knowledgeable subject. Erickson (1939b), using very deeply hypnotized subjects, produced some degree of color blindness as measured by the Ishihara plates. Barber and Deeley (1961) report producing color-blind responses in nonhypnotized sub jects by instructing them to "concentrate away from red and green." Cunningham and Blum (1982) and Harvey and Sipprelle (1978) found significant differences between the subjective experience reported by subjects success fully experiencing hypnotically suggested color blindness and the behavior of people with congenital defects in color vision.

Some subjects who are instructed to hallucinate colors either under hyp-nosis or task-motivational instructions report the occurrence of negative af-terimages. Barber (1964c, 1959b) suggests that such reports do not occur in subjects who are naive concerning the phenomena of negative color after-images, but if they do occur, the afterimage colors reported are those com monly described in elementary psychology texts—that is, the complementary color of the one hallucinated (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow) instead of the somewhat different (more pastel) colors usually reported in actual negative afterimages. Similarly, if an actual color was shown and the subject was told it was different, the actual color, not the hallucinated one, determined the nature of the afterimage (Barber, 1964d).

In view of the foregoing studies, the question arises about which view point, Barber's or Erickson's, is correct concerning the reality or validity of positive and negative hypnotic hallucinations. In the view of the author, both are correct. Erickson is right that these are real experiences; Barber is right that hallucinations are different from ordinary sensations. Hypnotic blindness or deafness is not the same as organic blindness or deafness any more than hysterical blindness or deafness is. Of course, negative afterimages do not occur in subjects not familiar with this phenomenon. How could they? A negative afterimage produced by a real external stimulus is a retinal phenomenon produced by the differential fatigue of different visual receptors. A hallucinated color does not result from retinal activity but from suggestions reaching the cerebral cortex. Sensations or physiological responses in sense organs are not modified in hypnotic hallucinations; perceptions or higher-level mental processes are.

An afterimage produced to a hallucinated color is as much a suggested effect as the color Itself. It is an excellent example of an indirect suggestion. This does not mean that it is not experienced. The real question asked when we inquire about the reality of a hypnotically Induced hallucination is, How vivid is it, or How similarly does the subject experience it to a real external stimulus? This is an unanswerable question. Trying to render the question answerable by equating "real" with similarity to a sensory experience in a physiological sense only introduces confusion. In spite of their rather divergent views, the work of Barber (1958d) and Erickson (1944) seems to support the general conclusion that subjects given hypnotic suggestions of deafness or blindness for a particular person or object behave as though they are trying to avoid perceiving that person or object. Subjects try to avoid focusing or looking at the subject of the negative hal lucination or report perceiving it vaguely. A similar result is reported by Hil-gard and colleagues for negative hallucinations of pain in that a subjectable to ignore the suffering aspects of pain will still report experiencing the sen sations in some manner if he is instructed that there is a hidden observer who can report these sensations (Hilgard, Morgan, MacDonald, 1975).

Barber claims that to get a subject not to experience the object of a negative hallu cination, it is necessary to convince him of the objective truth of the exper imenter's statement that the object is no longer present. Thus, if a subject is told that a chair is no longer present, he will try to look away from it but will not bump into it if it is directly in his path of travel. If, on the other hand, noises are made simulating the removal of the chair while the subject's eyes are shut, he will act as though he really does not see it at some level and will walk directly into it. Erickson reported a similar effect when a subject acted at though he really did not see one negatively hallucinated person but did show some signs of perceiving another for whom the suggestions were made more recently. He ascribed this difference in reactions, in accordance with his characteristic view that a very deep trance is required for this effect, to the fact that it takes time for the suggestions to become fully effective.

Although it seems clear that a positive hallucination of a complex sense modality like vision originates in the cortex, not in a sense organ, some of the easier-to-elicit tactile hallucinations may, partially at least, involve paying attention to a certain amount of dermal stimulation normally present and customarily ignored.

Hypnosis - Hallucinations

A hallucination is defined as a perception in the absence of a real external stimulus. Usually the occurrence of a hallucination is a symptom of a psychotic disorder, but under certain circumstances, normal people may hallucinate. These situations include conditions of sensory deprivation, extreme hunger or thirst, fever, drugs, REM sleep (nocturnal dreams), and, in some cases, scrying (crystal ball gazing). Normal people may also hallucinate under the influence of suggestions, hypnotic or otherwise.

Psychotic hallucinations in general have both a characteristic sensory mo dality and a characteristic content that vary between diagnostic categories. For example, schizophrenic hallucinations are predominantly auditory and have a characteristic obscene or self-critical content. Most psychotic hallucinations are accompanied by a delusional belief in their objective reality that is often absent in the hallucinations of normal people. This phenomenon is not intrinsically unreasonable, for psychotic hallucinations tend to be consis tent with past experience. For example, a hallucinated image will usually ob scure parts of real images lying in back of it in the visual field, and it will cast a reflection in a mirror. All of his life the patient has been correct in believing the information his sense organs have communicated to him about the ex­ternal world, and there is no reason why he should not believe in the ver-idicality of these images when they are hallucinated.

In the case of the hypnotically suggested hallucination, the modality and the contect of the hallucination are functions of the suggestions made. Hallucinations can be suggested in any sense modality; the ones most commonly used are vision, audition, olfaction, gustation, touch, heat, and cold. : hallucinations may be suggested in specific modalities or it may produce multimodality effects. For example, the hallucinated fly in the Stanford test (SHSS:A) may produce visual, auditory, fects. In addition to positive hallucinations, negative hal-the subject fails to perceive some real external stimulus, ted. These are analogous, if not identical, to the everyday >erson is looking directly at an object that he is searching :e it. Those portions of the external environment that are lotic suggestions are generally perceived accurately if not (Orne, 1962d).

Hallucinations in general are difficult to elicit under hypnosis, and there is ilty between the various sensory modalities. Tactile hallucinations are comparatively easy to produce. Suggesting to a group of nons that they should notice that their noses are beginning to in effect in many of them. So will reading a paragraph iing that might be used in making such a suggestion. The rises of olfaction and gustation are also more amenable to ! more highly developed senses of audition and vision.

Orne (1962d) points out that when a visual hallucination is suggested In a subject he may react in a variety of ways. He may act as though he sees 1 what has been suggested or seem disturbed because he does not experience it. In the former case, if he is questioned after the experience, he may say that (1) he saw nothing but felt compelled to act as if he did; (2) he expeFrienced a visual image but knew it was unreal; (3) he experienced a real external image but it had illogical aspects to it (e.g., he could see a chair j through a hallucinated person); or (4) he experienced an image indistinguish able from reality. Thus Orne categorized the subject's subjective experience into one of four categories. He considers only the last two as true halluci nations. In actuality, there is probably an infinite series of gradations of subject responses, and individual investigators differ in what they define as a positive | response to a suggested hallucination.

Another point needs to be made: there is no way for an experimenter to observe the subject's hallucination directly. Hence he or she must rely on the subject's verbal report of his or her experiences. Thus it is possible, and in deed probable, that one subject who experiences a hallucination more vividly than another may report it as less vivid because of individual differences in the use of language and subjective standards of what the term vivid means. This is the same problem experienced by dream researchers who purport to be studying dreams but are actually studying verbal reports of dreams. The only hallucinations that an investigator can observe directly are his or her own, and these are necessarily individual and atypical. The question about the relative subjective experiences of two different subjects reporting their own hallucinations, no matter how similar or different their verbal descriptions, is as unanswerable by observation as is the question of whether two subjects describing the same stimulus as blue are having the same or radically different subjective experiences.

Such questions are philosophical, not scientific, ones. Although the degree of the apparent reality of a hallucination can only be estimated by a verbal report, Orne (1962d) attempts to distinguish effects that are actually experienced from those that are simulated by subjects motivated to produce what the experimenter wants them to by the use of stimulating subjects. These are subjects who have not been hypnotized but have been instructed to act as if they have been and to attempt to deceive the experi menter making the behavioral observations (who is not told which subjects are actually hypnotized). Simulators are usually informed that if the experi menter discovers that they are simulating, he or she will halt the procedure; hence, its continuation lets the simulator know he is successful in efforts at deception. The logic behind the use of simulating subjects is that both hyp notized subjects and simulators are equally motivated to produce the sug gested behavior, but if only the hypnotic subjects actually experience the ef fects suggested, their behavior may be different to some degree from that of the subjects who are faking an effect. The lack of knowledge on the part of the experimenter of the real or simulating status of a subject eliminates experimenter bias and prevents any unconscious systematic differential treatment of the two types of subjects.

There are behavioral differences between real subjects and simulators. If a subject is told to hallucinate the experimenter sitting in a chair and is then told to turn around and look at where the experimenter really is, he will often appear surprised and report seeing him twice. He may not know which image is real. (Some subjects will distinguish the real from the hallucinated image by having the hallucinated one raise his hand.) Simulating subjects will usually deny seeing the experimenter when looking at him because they believe they are not supposed to.

If a negative hallucination is suggested so that the subject is told he can no longer see a chair and then is asked to walk in a direct line with the chair, hypnotized subjects will avoid bumping into the chair, while simulators will Usually walk into it. Spanos, Churchill, and McPeake (1976) found that a cooperative attitude toward hypnosis and involvement in everyday fantasy were each positively correlated with the ability of a subject to experience visual and auditory hal lucinations. Visual hallucinations were more difficult to produce than auditory hallucinations, but they found that the abilities to produce these two types of hallucinations were correlated. They reported no sex difference in the ability to hallucinate. A large majority of their subjects reported their experiences as Imagined rather than seen or heard. Ham and Spanos (1974) report that with 60 male and female subjects equally assigned to hypnotic and task-motivational groups, the task-moti vated subjects performed better in response to suggestions of visual or au-ditory hallucination. Spanos, Mullens, and Rivers (1979) in a 2 x 3 factorial study compared hypnotic and task-motivated subjects in performance of vis ual and auditory hallucinations in response to brief suggestions, long sug gestions, and suggestions providing an imaginary context. Task-motivated subjects performed better than hypnotic subjects on auditory hallucinations, I and the authors report a "trend toward significance" in this direction on visual hallucinations. Both long and image-involving suggestions were equally more effective than short suggestions for auditory hallucinations but were not sig nificantly different for visual hallucinations.

Hypnosis and ESP

There are a number of articles discussing a purported relationship betweenhypnosis and ESP phenomena thai are cited here because they raise issues that require comment (Eisenberg, 1978, Fourie. 1981; Nash, 1982: Sargent, 1978; Shaposhnikov. 19S2). The author is not unprejudiced concerning the ESP literature- He tends to have a mechanistic view of the world and psychological phenomena. Thus, when someone talks about clairvoyance (communication from inanimate ob- jects to people), telepathy (communication between people via non-sensory means) or psychokineiics (the influence of thoughts on inanimate objects), he would ask what is the medium of communication and upon what receptor it acts. This is not !Q soi-1 iha: research in ESP canr'.o; be v-i-'l: designed and scientifically valid Such research is respectable and II should be conducted, bui it seems thai if there were any basis for ihe belief that ESP phenomena are real, then the amount of such rf^tirrli conducted since ihe 1920'- ought to have produced more coni.lnciny evidence than is currently available as well as some reasonable theory ot the mechanisms involved. Tests of statistical significance can never establish that a difference between an experimental and control group is not due to chance, only that the prob- ability of it being so is at some given level Tims, if there is only one chance in 100 that this difference occurred by chance, and the null hypothesis is rejecied cil the 0.01 level, ihii particular result may still be due to chance. If enuugli le-iiiaich is done, such spuriously significant reiuli-i '-'.'ili occur.

Most [ournals are reluctant 10 publish nonsignificant findings unless they contradict previously published results (although it is |ust as much an incre- ment oi knowledge to learn lhal an Independent variable does no; produce an effect as it is to learn thai it does). Thus. mosi rese^rrh r tested at the 0.05 level of significance to make ii easier to gel il publi^li^d It therefore follows that fully 5% of the psychological and other scientific literature is Spu- rious, reporting as real results lhal are actually due to chance.

Such spurious results are usually noi repiicable, but many journals will not publisli replicaiion studies, ihereby preventing the necessary verification of results. To evaluate whether a particular experimental result found to be si9- nificant is in fact real, it would be helpful to know how many times this ex- periment was run without finding significance. This information is not gen- erally available.

If a researcher proposes a view that is intrinsically reasonable, it is generally accepted in scientific circles that he or she has the burden of establishing this view by a certain amount of evidence. If the view advocated is contrary to all prior human experience and intrinsically unreasonable, then its propo- nents ought to have an even greater burden of proof imposed on them.

There may be a certain amount of heuristic value in much ESP research. For example, the author would be inclined to attribute Sargent's (1978) find- ing that a hypnosis group performed better than a waking control group in a clairvoyance task with ESP cards either to a greater sensitivity on the part of hypnotic subjects to subtle, unintended cues (which are not apparent in the report of the study) or to hypnotic relaxation and concentration facilitating the subjects "playing bridge" or counting the cards correctly guessed.

The problem with ESP research involving hypnosis is basically a public relations one. Most people regard ESP phenomena as having a supernatural basis, with the ordinary laws of the universe not applying. Hypnosis has suf- fered much in the past from its association with magic, mysticism, and the like, and even today many professional people have misgivings about its sci- entific validity because of these past associations. Hence, claims that hypnosis can enhance ESP abilities, like some extravagant claims for its clinical effec- tiveness, are likely to make many professionals leery of its use in situations where it may be quite appropriate and helpful.

Hypnotically Induced Emotional States

Since an emotion is generally regarded as a combination of the activities of the ANS, the subjective perception of these activities, and the accompanying ideation, it follows that hypnotically suggested emotional states are closely related to the physiological effects of hypnosis. Because the ANS is generally not under voluntary control, many of the physiological effects producible under hypnosis may in fact be mediated by emotional states that are more directly produced by hypnotic suggestion.

Hodge and Wagner (1964) cited a collection of studies that utilized hypnotically induced emotional states to test the validity of the Rorschach test by inducing various emotional states in subjects and seeing if the resultant Rorschach protocol was changed in the predicted direction (Bergmann, Graham, and Leavitt, 1947; Counts and Mensh, 1950; Lane, 1948; Levine, Grassi, and Gerson, 1943; Mercer and Gibson, 1950; Sarbin, 1939). They then embarked on a line of inverse research designed not to demonstrate the validity of a projective technique but to show the reality of hypnotically suggested emotional states by demonstrating that these states produced appropriate changes in responses to a projective test assumed to be valid. For this purpose, the Hands Test, which consists of nine pictures of a pair of hands in ambiguous positions, was used. The subject was required to describe the activities the hands were engaged in. For a tenth card, which was blank, the subject was required to imagine a set of hands and describe their activities. In the first study, a middle-aged patient was used as the only subject. She was tested in the normal waking condition to establish a baseline and was diagnosed as a passive-dependent personality type. She was then given the test under neutral hypnosis, with remarkably similar results. She was subsequently administered this test under five different hypnotically induced emotional states (with instructions after each testing to forget the test). The five emotional states suggested were:

1. Dwelling on a happy thought.
2. Anticipating a pleasant sexual experience.
3. Unhappiness over her husband leaving her.
4. Anger over unjust criticism.
5. Falling in love.

Hodge found that in each state, the patient's basic personality features were reflected in test results, but the effects of the suggested emotional state were also apparent.

In a follow-up study, seven subjects were tested to permit a statistical analysis of results. Only two induced emotional states, affection and aggression, were used. Responses to the Hands Test obtained in these states were compared to the results obtained from the administration of the test in the waking and neutral hypnosis conditions. In both emotions, it was found that the number of test responses appropriate to the suggested emotion increased from the baseline condition. It was also noted that responses appropriate to the noninduced emotion were lower than in the baseline condition (Hodge, Wag-ner, and Schreiner, 1966a). Hodge, Wagner, and Schreiner (1966b) con-cluded that a hypnotically induced emotion can be considered similar to a naturally occurring one, provided it can be demonstrated that the behavior and test responses of subjects are similar (under the hypnotically induced emotion) to their behavior and test responses under the naturally occurring emotion. They also found that the subject's behavior was different from that In the control state, that each test situation was perceived by the subject as a new experience, and that the effects of acting could be eliminated.

Hypnotically Induced Dreams

Hypnotically induced dreams can be generated either under Hypnosis or subsequent to it, in which case they are just a specific type of Posthypnotic phenomenon. The subject may be told to have and remember a dream, or the theme of the dream can be suggested with varying degrees of specificity. If the dream is produced under Hypnosis, the subject can be asked to describe it as he is experiencing it. However, since dreams are predominantly visual experiences and one picture will take much more than the proverbial 1,000 words to describe it in all of its details, such simultaneous verbal reports must of necessity be gross abstractions and therefore distortions of the ongoing dream process. What will be reported is a function of the subject's expectations and mental set and what he perceives the experimenter expects.

There is a general agreement that Hypnotic and Posthypnotic dreams, especially the former, tend to differ from naturally occurring nocturnal dreams. Specifically, they tend to be shorter, more verbal, less bizarre, and contain less symbolism. Barber (1962) says that they are often difficult to distinguish from simple verbal associations to the dream topic suggested. They resemble non-rem nocturnal dreams, which are often described by subjects in dream studies as thinking rather than dreaming. In a review of the literature on Hypnotic and Posthypnotic dreams Barber concluded that:

1. Hypnotic dreams typically contain very little evidence of the operation of the dream work; that is, they are not distorted or symbolic representations and good Hypnotic subjects often describe their imaginative products as dreams in order to comply with the expectations of the experimenter.
2. When Hypnotic dreams are reported involving predominantly pictorial images and a high degree of symbolic material, they do not differ significantly from reports of some nonhypnotized subjects instructed to make up symbolic dreamlike material.
3. Some subjects who report dreaming about the Hypnotic situation the following night in response to a posthypnotic suggestions might have done so without the suggestion since the interesting experimental situation could have functioned as an ordinary day residue.
4. Evidence was found in some studies that both Hypnotic and control subjects given posthypnotic suggestions to dream at night did not sleep normally and actually awakened during the night and purposely created dreams that they were motivated to produce.
5. The notion that subjects are better able to interpret dreams under Hypnosis in the absence of the familiarity with psychology has not been demonstrated.

Barrett (1979), on the other hand, in comparing the Hypnotic dreams of 16 medium-to high-susceptibility male and female subjects with the non Hypnotic nocturnal dreams and daydreams of the same subjects, found a clear relationship between depth of trance and the characteristics of Hypnotic dreams. She found that the Hypnotic dreams of deeply Hypnotized subjects were quite similar to nocturnal dreams and concluded that it was therefore appropriate to use them in therapy as though they were nocturnal dreams; but for medium-susceptibility subjects, content difference were found between Hypnotic and nocturnal dreams.

Dave (1979) reports a study demonstrating the value of hypnotically induced dreams, not in psychotherapy but to aid in the development of creative solutions to problems of an academic, vocational, avocational, or personal nature about which subjects were at an impasse prior to dream manipulation.

Six out of eight subjects in the Hypnotic dream group were successful in solving their problem, as compared to one out of eight in a rational-cognitive treatment group and none out of eight in a control group given only a personal interview.

Torda (1975) used posthypnotic suggestions creating emotional states to study the effects of these emotions on naturally occurring nocturnal dreams in subjects sleeping in her laboratory. Subjects were awakened after each REM period with instructions to verbalize their dreams. The effectiveness of the posthypnotic suggestions in generating the emotional states was confirmed by various physiological measures made on the subjects. This study, although more typical of ordinary dream research than research on Hypnotically induced dreams, suggests that future Hypnotic dream studies ought to adopt the methodology of monitoring sleep continuously with an EEG and waking subjects for dream reports after each REM period. In addition to answering Barbers questions concerning the reality of the reported dream experience, EEG research is capable of producing a greater yield of dreams and hence could pick up dreams compliant with posthypnotic suggestions that were forgotten in spite of suggestions to remember them. Most research on posthypnotic dreams relies on the memory of the subjects the following morning

----Five subjects were given suggestions to make an effort not to dream, eight were given suggestions to facilitate dreaming, and four were given a posthyhpnotic suggestion unrelated to sleep or dreaming. Suggestions to inhibit or facilitate dreaming had a marked effect in the expected direction, based on subjective reports of the subjects the following morning. In addition EEG tracings made on the subjects throughout the night showed that two of the five dream-inhibition subjects had a dramatic reduction in REM sleep. This reduction demonstrated that there was more than the demand characteristics of the experimental situation involved in the subjective effects. No increase in REM sleep was found for the dream <ETH>facilitation subjects, and subjects in the three groups did not differ significantly in NREM sleep.

Comedy Hypnotist

Really check out your entertainer before you hire. Be aware of those hypnotists that cannot give you repeat references from a venue or client. Compare their promotional materials with other hypnotists and if at all possible try and get a video, DVD that shows a full show. Viewing highlights is just what you will get.---For some hypnotists the show is about them and not the audience.

When it comes to comedy hypnotists you get the good and the bad----Stay away from the self proclaimed ‘fastest’ and voted the ‘best’ ---. For every hypnotist that proclaims these things there are ten other hypnotists that are better and faster.

Be aware of those who pad their educational backgrounds. The MSc or PhD in Clinical Hypnosis. There really is no such thing that is recognized by any legitimate educational institution. There is just education --. The bottom line is that anybody can practice clinical hypnosis; any body can give out a PhD in clinical hypnosis. Anybody can get up on stage and say they are a comedy hypnotist. There is no governing body, or official licensing--- so understanding this take your time in researching your hypnotist.

Typically comedy hypnotists specialize in a field of entertainment. It may be Corporate, Universities and Colleges, High Schools, the fair industry, comedy clubs or cruise ships and resorts/casinos.

I personally vary my material for the audience. Corporate tends to be squeaky clean and politically correct, the same for high school and fair performances. Of course everything really is based on client needs. I always discuss a show format prior to an event and will suggest a routine, but I am always open to suggestions.

Comedy Clubs expect something a little different and so that is what I give them.

A quick synopsisÑInsure that you get a hypnotist that has repeat references, and make sure you have a number that you can call (make sure it is not their mother!) to talk to the client that saw the hypnotist. Try and get a full video of a performance and beware of padded credentials. If the hypnotist sounds pushy or self- proclaimed look for the red lights flashing.

If I am booked I can always steer you in the right direction for a good hypnotist. I can be contacted on my web page at www.barryjones.com or call Barry Jones 1(760)635-7785.

Techniques of Autohypnosis

Just as there are a great number of ways of inducing heterohypnosis, thereis also almost no limit to the varieties of autohypnotic techniques. Some of the works listed in the References and Bibliography of this book that were addressed to lay audiences provide an idea of this variety. It is improbable, however, that even a good subject would be successful in inducing self-hyp- nosis as a result of reading a book. What is generally required is personal training by a hypnotist, and this always includes some degree of heterohyp- nosis, whether in the form of a formal trance induction or in the form of helpful suggestions and supervision. An example of a self-hypnosis training procedure that the author has found effective (and which the reader may modify as he desires, to meet the requirements of his own personality and the needs of his patients) will now be described.

If a subject is to be trained in self-hypnosis by means of heterohypnosis, this should be taken into account in the selection of the heterohypnotic in- duction procedure. Specifically, hypnosis should be attempted in the most permissive manner possible and the subject's own role in producing all of the hypnotic phenomena emphasized. Following the induction phase, time should be spent in deepening the trance as much as possible so that the subject can experience the subjective feelings accompanying hypnosis. These feelings should be suggested to be pleasant and positive ones. The fact that the subject is always in control of what he thinks, feels,and does and is in no way under the control of the hypnotist should also be made clear. After the subject has had a chance to experience and enjoy the deep relaxation of the hypnotic state and his fears of the new experience have been allayed, he should be told that he can reproduce this pleasant, secure, relaxed state whenever he desires, without the aid of the hypnotist, by going through an induction ritual that he is then taught.

The particular ritual described is not important. Few subjects will be able to go into a self-hypnotic state instantly on a posthypnotic signal, and it is preferable to give the subject an induction ritual that permits him to enter the state gradually. For example, he may be told to say to himself: "When 1 reach the count of 10, I will be in a very deep, relaxed, hypnotic state," and then to start counting. Whatever posthypnotic quality may result from giving these instructions under hypnosis will aid the subject in his early efforts, but the method does not depend on posthypnotic suggestion and could be taught to a waking subject as well. Even in the latter case, however, a previous hyp- notic induction is desirable to permit the subject to experience the state he is trying to produce.

The subject should also be instructed, while still under hypnosis, to per- form all self-hypnosis in a quiet, private place and to sit or lie comfortably in a position appropriate for heterohypnosis before commencing. The subject should be told that following the self-induction, he can make the same kind of deepening suggestions to himself that the hypnotist has used. One or two of these techniques should be described to him. He should be told that each time he Induces hypnosis, it will be easier, and he will go deeper than the last time. A good practice is to train a subject in a self-induction technique related to the one by which he has been successfully hypnotized since he will have experience and confidence in such a method. Thus, if heterohypnosis was induced by an arm levitation, the subject can be trained to levitate his arm to induce hypnosis. In the initial induction, the hypnotist will elect the method he or she believes will be easiest for the subject, and, if it is successful, will use it as the basis of the self-induction method to be taught. If the hyp- notist had difficulty with the method originally attempted and had to switch to another technique to induce a trance, then he or she will also have to modify the self-induction procedure taught.

The subject should be told that following self-induction and deepening, he will be able to make any desired suggestions to himself, just as an external hypnotist could. He is then told that when he is finished making the sugges- tions, he is to awaken himself by the use of a simple formula, such as counting to 3, to ensure a comfortable and gradual return to the waking state. It should be suggested that he will never experience any unpleasant after effects of hypnosis, such as headache, muscle cramp, or a feeling of numbness, and that if any emergency occurs while he is under hypnosis, he will instantly awaken and be able to deal with the situation. Just how effective this latter suggestion is, or whether the same result would not occur without it, is un- certain, but it is never a mistake to err on the side of caution. Just making such a suggestion may have the effect of putting some of a subject's unspoken fears to rest.

After explaining the procedure to the subject under hypnosis and ensuring that he understands what is required of him, the subject should be returned to the waking state. Any additional questions he may have should be an- swered, and then he should immediately be given the opportunity to try out the procedure with the hypnotist present. The subject should be told to go ahead and induce the hypnotic state by himself, enjoy the pleasant, relaxed feeling for a few minutes, and then awaken himself. It is useful to tell him to raise his hand when he has attained a state as deep as or deeper than that induced by the hypnotist so that the instructor-hypnotist can gauge the sub- ject's progress.

The immediate practice of the self-hypnotic procedure makes it most likely to succeed because it capitalizes on the subject's heightened expectancy pro- duced by the successful heterohypnosis. It also permits any misunderstand- ings or problems to be corrected while the hypnotist is present to supervise the procedure. If the patient reports he is unable to produce hypnosis by himself it may be helpful to point out to him that he has already proved that he can do it (under heterohypnosis), for he and not the hypnotist was re- sponsible for whatever effects were obtained.

Following the successful completion of this exercise, the subject should be told that he must practice the procedure one or more times daily to attain proficiency in it and to reinforce the therapeutic suggestions that he has been instructed to make to himself. These will be specific to the patient's treatment plan but may additionally include general positive suggestions of well-being. These final instructions give the hypnotist the opportunity to repeat his sug- gestion, this time while the subject is in the waking state, that with each sub- sequent induction, the subject will go deeper. (For examples of other vari- ations in the teaching of patients to induce or utilize self-hypnosis, see Garver, 1984, and Sacerdote, 1984),

If self-hypnotic suggestions are part of a patient's treatment plan, the pa- tient should always be the one to induce the trance state, even in hetero- hypnotic sessions in the therapist's office. The therapist can thus monitor the patient's technique, and it motivates the latter to do his homework, for in effect.he is being tested on his performance.

Once a patient masters the generation of an autohypnotic state, he is free to modify it in a variety of useful ways. For example, he can leam to induce this state with his eyes open and without any external indications of being hypnotized. He can then induce a brief trance in a public place without at- tracting attention to himself, a useful skill should he have a need for an im- mediate, supportive self-suggestion, such as one to diminish a desire he may be experiencing to smoke a cigarette while trying to stop smoking (Spiegel, 1974a).

If a patient is unable to learn self-hypnosis because he is unwilling to de- vote the time necessary for practice (or for any other reason) but is a good enough subject for heterohypnosis, some of the advantages of self-hypnosis (such as the daily repetition of therapeutic suggestions) may be attainable by making a tape recording for the patient to listen to at home. These tapes should be tailor-made for the requirements of a particular patient, and ideally they should be made during an actual hypnotic session with the patient so that suggestions may be timed in response to the patient's reactions. If the issue of control is important to a patient, it may be worthwhile to have him prepare the tape himself from a script. This sort of tape may lack the profes- sional quality of one made by the therapist and may not be optimally timed, but it has the advantage of requiring a patient who resents being controlled by others to follow no one else's suggestions but his own.

Much of the potential of self-hypnosis or heterohypnosis to benefit a pa- tient may reside in the opportunity it affords him to detach himself from the external world and devote his full attention to a consideration of the positive ideas and suggestions presented. Not only are these ideas focused on in- tensely, but, because of their careful selection in consultation with the ther- apist, they are less likely to be the trivial or negative type of ideation that Barber claims is typical of most people's routine thought processes.

In addition to teaching a patient how to induce self-hypnosis, the therapist must train him or her in the preparation of the suggestions to be employed in this state. In general, these should be carefully thought out and planned by the patient prior to the induction (just as heterosuggestions should) to avoid disruption of the trance state. They should emphasize the benefits being sought rather than the negative aspects of the symptom and should be made with an attitude of belief and expectancy. Self-hypnosis provides more than the opportunity to reinforce suggestions made during heterohypnotic session.